|
The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest was the most significant conflict between Church and state in medieval Europe. In the 11th and 12th centuries, a series of popes challenged the authority of European monarchies. The issue was whether the pope or the monarch would name (invest) powerful local church officials such as bishops of cities and abbots of monasteries. The conflict ended in 1122, when Emperor Henry V and Pope Calixtus II agreed on the Concordat of Worms. It differentiated between the royal and spiritual powers and gave the emperors a limited role in selecting bishops. The outcome seemed mostly a victory for the pope and his claim that he was God's chief representative in the world. However, the Emperor did retain considerable power over his Church. The investiture controversy began as a power struggle between Pope Gregory VII (1072–85) and Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor (1056–1106).〔.〕 A brief but significant struggle over investiture also occurred between Henry I of England and Pope Paschal II in the years 1103 to 1107, and the issue played a minor role in the struggles between church and state in France, as well. By undercutting the Imperial power established by the Salian emperors, the controversy led to nearly 50 years of civil war in Germany, and the triumph of the great dukes and abbots. Imperial power was finally re-established under the Hohenstaufen dynasty. Historian Norman Cantor: ==Origins== After the decline of the Roman Empire, and prior to the Investiture Controversy, while theoretically a task of the church, investiture was in practice performed by members of the religious nobility.〔Blumenthal ''Investiture Controversy'' pp. 34–36〕 Many bishops and abbots were themselves usually part of the ruling nobility. Since the eldest son would inherit the title, younger siblings often found careers in the church. This was particularly true where the family may have established a proprietary church or abbey on their estate. Since Otto the Great (936-72) the bishops had been princes of the empire, had secured many privileges, and had become to a great extent feudal lords over great districts of the imperial territory. The control of these great units of economic and military power was for the king a question of primary importance, affecting as it did imperial authority.〔(Löffler, Klemens. "Conflict of Investitures." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 29 Jan. 2015 )〕 It was essential for a ruler or nobleman to appoint (or sell the office to) someone who would remain loyal.〔 Since a substantial amount of wealth and land was usually associated with the office of a bishop or abbot, the sale of church offices (a practice known as simony) was an important source of income for leaders among the nobility, who themselves owned the land and by charity allowed the building of churches. The crisis began when a group within the church, members of the Gregorian Reform, decided to rebel against the rule of simony by forcefully taking the power of investiture from the ruling secular power, i.e. the Holy Roman Emperor and placing that power wholly within control of the church. The Gregorian reformers knew this would not be possible so long as the emperor maintained the ability to appoint the pope, so their first step was to forcibly gain the papacy from the control of the emperor. An opportunity came in 1056 when Henry IV became German king at six years of age. The reformers seized the opportunity to take the papacy by force while he was still a child and could not react. In 1059, a church council in Rome declared, with ''In Nomine Domini'', that leaders of the nobility would have no part in the selection of popes and created the College of Cardinals as a body of electors made up entirely of church officials. Once Rome regained control of the election of the pope, it was ready to attack the practice of investiture and simony on a broad front. In 1075, Pope Gregory VII composed the ''Dictatus Papae''. One clause asserted that the deposal of an emperor was under the sole power of the pope.〔Appleby, R. Scott. "How the pope got his political muscle." U.S. Catholic 64.9 (1999): 36. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 5 June 2010.〕 It declared that the Roman church was founded by God alone – that the papal power (the ''auctoritas'' of Pope Gelasius) was the sole universal power; in particular, a council held in the Lateran Palace from 24 to 28 February the same year decreed that the pope alone could appoint or depose churchmen or move them from see to see. By this time, Henry IV was no longer a child, and he continued to appoint his own bishops.〔 He reacted to this declaration by sending Gregory VII a letter in which he withdrew his imperial support of Gregory as pope in no uncertain terms: the letter was headed "Henry, king not through usurpation but through the holy ordination of God, to Hildebrand, at present not pope but false monk".〔Halsall, Paul. "Medieval Sourcebook: Henry IV: Letter to Gregory VII, 24 January 1076". Internet Medieval Source Book. 6/2/2010 The situation was made even more dire when Henry IV installed his chaplain, Tedald, a Milanese priest, as Bishop of Milan, when another priest of Milan, Atto, had already been chosen in Rome by the pope for candidacy.〔Shaff-Herzog. ''A Religious Encyclopedia: or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology''. II vols. New York, NY: Funk and Wagnalls Publishers, 1883. Pg. 911. 6/3/2010.〕 In 1076 Gregory responded by excommunicating Henry, and deposed him as German king,〔Halsall, Paul.("Medieval Sourcebook: Gregory VII: First Deposition and Banning of Henry IV (22 February 1076)". ) Internet Medieval Source Book. 6/2/2010 <>.〕 releasing all Christians from their oath of allegiance.〔 Enforcing these declarations was a different matter, but the advantage gradually came to be on the side of Gregory VII. German princes and the aristocracy were happy to hear of the king's deposition. They used religious reasons to continue the rebellion started at the First Battle of Langensalza in 1075, and for seizure of royal holdings. Aristocrats claimed local lordships over peasants and property, built forts, which had previously been outlawed, and built up localized fiefdoms to secure their autonomy from the empire.〔 Thus, because of these combining factors, Henry IV had no choice but to back down, needing time to marshal his forces to fight the rebellion. In 1077, he traveled to Canossa in northern Italy to meet the pope and apologize in person. As penance for his sins, and echoing his own punishment of the Saxons after the First Battle of Langensalza, he dramatically wore a hair shirt and stood in the snow barefoot in the middle of winter in what has become known as the Walk to Canossa. Gregory lifted the excommunication, but the German aristocrats, whose rebellion became known as the Great Saxon Revolt, were not so willing to give up their opportunity. They elected a rival king, Rudolf von Rheinfeld. Three years later, Gregory declared his support for von Rheinfeld, and excommunicated Henry IV again. Henry IV then proclaimed Antipope Clement III to be pope. In 1080, Rudolf died, effectively ending the internal revolt against Henry. In 1081, Henry invaded Rome, for the first time, with the intent of forcibly removing Gregory VII and installing a more friendly pope. Gregory VII called on his allies, the Normans in southern Italy, and they rescued him from the Germans in 1085. The Normans sacked Rome in the process, and when the citizens of Rome rose up against Gregory, he was forced to flee south with the Normans. He died soon thereafter. The Investiture Controversy continued for several decades as each succeeding pope tried to diminish imperial power by stirring up revolt in Germany. These revolts were gradually successful. Henry IV was succeeded upon his death in 1106 by his son Henry V, who had rebelled against his father in favor of the papacy, and who had made his father renounce the legality of his antipopes before he died. Nevertheless, Henry V chose one more antipope, Gregory VIII. Later, he renounced some of the rights of investiture with the Concordat of Worms, abandoned Gregory, and was received back into communion and recognized as legitimate emperor as a result. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「investiture controversy」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
|